Science of Writing

Effective writing instruction is grounded in decades of research that identifies evidence-based methods for developing skilled writers. This research reveals that teaching writing effectively requires more than intuition or traditional approaches—it demands practices informed by science.

When we examine the science behind teaching writing, we discover a tapestry of interconnected findings that illuminate the path to student growth. From understanding the cognitive processes that underpin composition to recognizing the social dimensions of effective feedback, these research insights translate directly into powerful classroom practices.

This comprehensive guide synthesizes landmark studies and current research, offering a foundation for instruction that advances student writing development. By bridging theory and practice, we’ll explore how scientifically validated approaches can transform writing instruction and help students become confident, capable writers.

What is writing?

Berninger and Chanquoy (2012) outline the various definitions of writing.

• Some see it primarily as as set of motor skills such as handwriting and spelling.
• Others describe it as a higher-level cognitive process that includes planning, organizing, and translating ideas into text.
• Writing is also defined by its purpose (e.g., persuading, informing, narrating) or how it’s produced (e.g., independently, collaboratively, etc.).

Given the many ways writing is described, teachers are often left wondering how to support students in becoming confident and purposeful communicators.

The Not-So-Simple View of Writing

What does the Not-So-Simple View of Writing reveal about how writers develop?

As a whole, these definitions point to the interconnected processes required in writing. This convergence is central to Berninger and Winn’s (2006) Not-So-Simple View of Writing, a research-based framework that highlights the multifaceted nature of writing development.

The Not-So-Simple View of Writing is a theoretical framework that depicts writing as a process combining transcription skills (e.g., spelling, handwriting, or keyboarding) with text generation (forming ideas and shaping sentences). It also highlights the critical role of executive functions—attention, goal setting, and self-regulation—alongside working and short-term memory, all of which are necessary for the planning and revising stages of writing (Berninger, 2012).

The framework shows that effective writing extends beyond mechanics to include how students navigate, and teachers support, the cognitive demands of writing.

The Writing Rope

How does the Writing Rope illustrate the skills that make up strong writing?

The Six Traits of Writing

How do the Six Traits clarify what strong writing looks like?

While the Not-So-Simple View and the Writing Rope highlight the foundational components of writing, the 6+1 Traits of Writing framework gives teachers clear language that points to the skills to teach explicitly.

Grounded in more than 60 years of research, the 6+1 Traits of Writing defines the core components of “good” writing—ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, and conventions. (Presentation was added in 2004 as a “plus-one,” acknowledging the importance of visual aspects of writing—particularly relevant in today’s world of on-screen composing and digital publishing.

These traits or characteristics are inherent in written products across all genres, mediums, and grade levels. Consequently, the traits provide teachers and students with a shared language for teaching and assessing writing products.

Simply put, the 6+1 Traits address the physical and identifiable characteristics evident in any spoken, drawn, or written product. And since they are grounded in research, they are accounted for within both the Not-So-Simple View of Writing and the Writing Rope models.

While the 6+1 Traits of Writing provide a common language to discuss “good” writing, it is worth noting that the other two frameworks also highlight the executive function component. Unlike the 6+1 Traits of Writing, the Writing Rope & Not-So-Simple View depict the cognitive processes and critical thinking the writer—the one generating the product—requires in order to organize, plan, draft, and revise a strong message.

Another way to frame this is to recognize that the writing traits are evident in the product or the WRITING. These identifiable characteristics indicate the skills to teach and assess. But to compose any well-spoken, drawn, or written product—it also requires teaching the WRITER to make decisions throughout the process.

In many ways, these frameworks mirror one another, reinforcing that writing proficiency requires a WRITER with the habits and know-how to craft a message and the skills and knowledge to create strong WRITING. All three models reveal similar components and are supported by research.

Consequently, the key to growing stronger writers is NOT in selecting the “right” framework or committing to a specific model. Instead, the solution lies in implementing the essential components they each identify—our 5 writing essentials.

Decades of research point to clear practices that improve writing instruction. Several studies, including those by Graham and colleagues (2007, 2012), frequently name the following factors:

• Explicit skill instruction.
• Consistent practice.
• Smooth transcription of ideas.
• Application of the writing process.
• Regular feedback.
• Varied writing experiences.

Although not an exhaustive list, these shared findings reveal what students need to become confident communicators. Educators often endorse each practice individually but struggle to build a comprehensive approach that integrates them all.

Research tells us WHAT strong instruction requires, but knowing WHAT is not the same as knowing HOW. The challenge lies in transforming the science of writing into daily classroom practice. The real work is learning HOW to implement the research with consistency.

The science of writing is a well established framework, built on a large body of research with decades of repeated findings. The goal is to move beyond theory and create consistent, effective practices that teachers can apply in the classroom. Through an extensive review of this research, we identified five key components—common threads that repeatedly surface in studies on effective writing instruction. These components serve as a framework to ensure no critical elements are overlooked, translating theory into actionable strategies and creating more cohesive, impactful writing experiences for both teachers and students.

INSTRUCTIONAL TIME | Writing development requires consistent, protected time dedicated to writing instruction and practice.

EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION | Clear, direct teaching of specific writing strategies and skills, paired with timely, targeted feedback, significantly improves student writing achievement.

RIGOROUS CURRICULUM | A comprehensive curriculum explicitly teaches the three core writing modes (persuasive/argumentative, informative, narrative), the complete writing & research processes, and essential language & grammar skills.

SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTION | A carefully sequenced, cumulative approach using focused mini-units progressively builds student proficiency across writing modes throughout the academic year and across grade levels.

CROSS-CURRICULAR WRITING | Writing instruction embedded within content areas reinforces writing skills while addressing the specific conventions, vocabulary, and thinking required in different academic disciplines.

Effective writing instruction requires dedicated time—and the time currently allocated is insufficient.

Research reveals that most educators agree that teaching writing is important, yet many admit they do not do it enough. They often wish they could incorporate more writing—if only there were more time.

To effectively develop writing proficiency, students need ample time for practice and application. Research shows that increasing the amount of time dedicated to writing in the classroom supports better skill development and deeper learning. Graham & Harris (2006) highlight that providing extended writing time is crucial for allowing students to engage meaningfully with content and enhance their writing ability. The Carnegie Foundation (2012) asserts that writing is an essential tool for critical thinking, and the more time students spend writing, the more they are able to develop their communication and cognitive skills.

While most of the research does not provide a specific number of minutes, experts agree that the current time spent is inadequate for growing students’ writing skills. Increasing the amount of time that writing is taught and practiced is essential to strengthening writing abilities across all grade levels. Writing needs to be a central activity in the classroom rather than a peripheral one.

In-class writing time, with the teacher present, is essential for developing students’ writing skills.

In-class writing offers students the chance to practice their skills while receiving immediate feedback from both peers and the teacher. Graham and Perin (2007) found that when students write in class with teacher guidance, their writing quality improves significantly. John Hattie’s (2008) research underscores the importance of teacher presence during writing tasks. His synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses shows that teacher-student interactions are crucial in boosting student achievement, especially during writing activities.

Relevant factors for teaching writing

• Writing happens regularly as part of the daily schedule.
• Writing instruction includes a short, focused mini-lesson that teaches specific skills.
• Direction instruction is followed by time for independent writing.
• Students write to express their own ideas and thoughts.
• Stamina for writing is built intentionally over time.
• Students learn strong writing habits and strategies to help them persevere.
• Teacher feedback is provided regularly and is essential for helping students grow as writers.

Explicit writing instruction is critical for student success.

Writing is not a natural skill for most students and must be explicitly taught to develop proficiency. Graham (2019) and Marzano (2007) emphasize that effective instruction includes modeling, Think Alouds, and clear demonstrations of writing strategies and processes.

A well-structured approach to writing instruction involves breaking tasks into manageable steps, providing clear guidance, and offering opportunities for both guided and independent practice. Hattie (2012) and Fisher (2008) highlight that structured lessons initiate the gradual release of responsibility and help scaffold learning, resulting in improved student achievement.

Regular practice and exposure to writing strategies lead to improvement.

Writing improvement relies on consistent practice and focused instruction. Graham (2006) and the National Center for Education Statistics (2011) stress that writing proficiency develops through continuous, explicit practice and the teaching of specific writing strategies.

Specific, focused, and timely writing feedback has a big impact.

Hattie (2012) found that feedback has a powerful impact on student achievement—with an effect size as high as 0.79. Hattie & Timperley (2007) stress that the most impactful feedback is task-specific, providing clear guidance to help students improve their strategies and writing processes.

Writing practice combined with timely, specific feedback enhances both writing and critical thinking skills. Graham & Hebert (2011) emphasize that this combination helps students refine their work. Teachers play a crucial role in this process, offering the guidance necessary to support student growth. The National Center for Education Statistics (2011) highlights the importance of teacher feedback in developing writing skills, which can be further enhanced by technology tools that provide instant feedback.

Relevant factors for teaching writing

• Grade-level writing skills are taught through whole-class, direct Tier 1 instruction.
• Each skill is taught using a 4-step, best-practice mini-lesson.
• The teacher begins by modeling each skill (I do; You watch and listen).
• Skills are taught using gradual release (I do, I do again/We do, You do).
• Mini-lessons are most effective and efficient when they are carefully planned.

1- Transcription skills are foundational for writing development at all levels.

Scarborough’s Reading Rope (2001) emphasizes the essential role of word recognition and fluency in supporting reading comprehension. Similarly, the Writing Rope model (Sedita, 2017) highlights how these foundational transcription skills—such as handwriting, spelling, grammar, usage, and sentence construction—serve as scaffolding for more complex writing tasks. Fluency in these areas, as well as keyboarding and digital tools, is essential for effective writing development.

When students struggle with these foundational skills, their cognitive resources are diverted from higher-level writing tasks, making composition more difficult. The Institute of Education Sciences (2012) emphasizes that effective writing instruction must explicitly teach transcription skills to support students’ writing fluency and overall literacy development.

2- Genre-writing instruction is crucial for developing purpose-driven communication skills.

Graham et al. (2012) highlight that effective writing instruction must help students understand the unique goals of each genre, ensuring they can adapt their writing for different contexts and audiences. Similarly, Sedita’s (2017) Writing Rope emphasizes that argumentative, informational, and narrative writing instruction is essential for developing writing skills. Learning the purpose, structure, and audience expectations of various genres boosts students’ versatility and confidence as writers. 

3- Response writing accelerates content mastery by enhancing comprehension and critical thinking.

Graham & Hebert (2011) highlight that writing about reading significantly boosts students’ ability to understand and recall content. Similarly, Sedita’s (2017) Writing Rope model underscores the importance of integrating writing into all content areas to develop key writing skills such as summarizing, analyzing, and synthesizing information.

Primary grades require all 3 types of writing, too.

Graham & Harris (2009) emphasize that early writing instruction must balance daily transcription skills (e.g., handwriting and spelling) with daily genre-specific writing tasks. Students need to learn both how to form letters and how to generate ideas and how to structure writing according to genre conventions. The National Commission on Writing (2003) also advocates for genre-specific instruction alongside foundational writing skills to develop literacy in the early grades. This balance helps students move from early scribbles to purposeful, general-aligned writing.

In their meta-analysis, Graham & Hebert (2011) suggest that students in the primary grades should also engage in writing tasks that help them understand and summarize content across genres, fostering both comprehension and writing development. Their research stresses that early writing instruction should not only focus on transcription but also include tasks that prompt critical thinking about content and help students organize ideas in structured forms, such as storytelling, reporting, or explaining. Writing, they argue, must be connected to content knowledge and genre conventions to effectively support students’ cognitive growth.

Relevant factors for teaching writing

• Each part of the Reading Rope has a corresponding component on the Writing Rope.
• Language foundations (i.e., transcription) and composition skills are equally emphasized in primary grades, special education, and all levels of multilingual-learner instruction.
• Each writing mode or purpose has its own key elements and text structure.
• Skills for persuasive, informative, and narrative writing are introduced even before students are writing complete sentences (e.g., through pictorial writing).

Research emphasizes that writing instruction must be systematic, organized, and progressive—not randomly assigned. Skills should build across the year and across grade levels to ensure steady growth. A clear, structured approach is essential to support long-term writing development.

INSTRUCTIONAL SEQUENCE OF TRANSCRIPTION SKILLS

Handwriting (focusing on letter formation and fine motor control) is essential for young writers to develop legible text and reduce cognitive load during writing (Graham, 2009).

Spelling instruction helps students understand word patterns, spelling rules, and sight words, which support fluency and accuracy in written expression (Graham & Harris, 2009).

Keyboarding skills are introduced as students move through the grades, enabling them to write more efficiently and focus on content creation (Graham & Perin, 2007).

Fluency and automaticity of transcription skills grow through practice, allowing students to write more quickly and with fewer errors, freeing up cognitive resources for higher-order writing tasks (Graham, 2009).

Integration with composition occurs when students apply their transcription skills to generate and organize ideas in written form, linking transcription with the higher-level cognitive demands of writing (Graham & Perin, 2007).

INSTRUCTIONAL SEQUENCE OF READING-RESPONSE SKILLS

Comprehension: Research consistently confirms that reading comprehension is a prerequisite for writing strong summaries and syntheses. The meta-analysis of Graham & Hebert (2010) found that writing about texts improves comprehension, but students must first comprehend a text before they can write meaningfully about it.

Organization: Graham & Perin (2007) stress the importance of teaching students how to structure their responses to clearly present their main idea or answer.

Evidence: Students must learn to support their ideas with evidence from the text. Graham & Hebert (2011) highlight that citing textual evidence is critical for making arguments and grounding analysis in concrete details.

Connection & Explanation: Sedita (2017) underscores that students should engage deeply with the text by adding reflection and explanation to enhance both their understanding and writing response.

Basic to Sophisticated: As students grow, their responses should evolve from basic and short summaries to longer, more sophisticated analyses, with increasing complexity in both argumentation and writing skills (Graham & Perin, 2007).

INSTRUCTIONAL SEQUENCE OF GENRE-WRITING SKILLS
There is no universal consensus on the strongest order to teach the writing genres. However, there is research on the rollout of units.

Spiral instruction to promote sustained growth. Writing instruction should be spiraled to reinforce skills over time. Hattie (2009) emphasizes the importance of cumulative practice and ongoing review to build writing abilities, while Graham (2019) highlights that revisiting genres and skills throughout the year strengthens students’ writing abilities incrementally. By regularly revisiting and reinforcing skills, students deepen their learning and develop greater mastery of writing.

Revisit genres regularly, facilitating mastery over time. Lapp & Fisher (2010) emphasize the importance of “accumulated writing capital,” emphasizing that writing development is a gradual, cumulative process. They advocate for consistent practice throughout the year, with multiple opportunities for students to engage with the same genre in various contexts, to internalize new skills and deepen their understanding.

Prioritize essential ingredients in genre instruction. Research underscores that a clear focus on core writing traits—like idea development, organization, and conventions—is critical for success. Brindle, Zeni, & Vanneman (2016) suggest that many teachers prioritize conventions and mechanics over ideas and organization, which must be established first before tackling complex writing tasks.

Relevant factors for teaching writing

• Skills are taught in a priority order, focusing on those most foundational to a writing genre (e.g., ideas, conventions, organization).
• Universal skills are included in every unit, with mode-specific nuances taught as needed.
• Units are broken into smaller, spiraled experiences that combine skill review with new instruction.
• Each unit concludes with a new, from-scratch product to assess individual writer growth.
• Yearlong mini-units include a balance of writing about both topics and texts.

Writing supports critical thinking, inquiry, and comprehension across disciplines.

By embedding writing tasks within content areas like English, social studies, science, and math, students’ comprehension is further enhanced, boosting overall learning and mastery of the material. Applebee & Langer (2011) emphasize that writing encourages students to engage deeply with content and think critically within each discipline. Similarly, the National Commission on Writing (2003) highlights that writing is essential for organizing knowledge, fostering critical thinking, and connecting concepts across subjects. Writing should be a cornerstone of learning in every subject, not confined to English language arts, as it is vital for retention and meaningful understanding (Applebee & Langer, 2011; National Commission on Writing, 2003).

Writing instruction must be tailored to the unique demands of each subject area.

Both Graham & Perin (2007) and Shanahan & Shanahan (2008) highlight the importance of teaching writing within the context of specific disciplines. Graham & Perin emphasize that writing skills improve when instruction reflects the unique tasks encountered in subjects like science, history, and math. This approach ensures students are well-prepared for the writing they will do in these fields. Similarly, Shanahan & Shanahan argue that students must be taught the specialized forms of writing used in each discipline. By focusing on the writing conventions of each subject area, students develop literacy skills that align with the specific expectations of those fields (Graham & Perin, 2007; Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008).

Writing is critical for lifelong success.

Proficiency in writing is essential not only for academic success but for career readiness. “…Writing competence is used by employers to make decisions about hiring and promotion in white-collar jobs, and approximately 90% of blue-collar jobs require some form of writing” (The National Commission on Writing, 2004, 2005).

Relevant factors for teaching writing

• Comprehension and critical thinking about texts and topics are expressed through writing.
• Writing reflects deeper thinking, going beyond simple summaries or restating ideas. (This aligns with the expectations of state reading assessments.)
• Producing solid first-draft writing is a regular part of content-area learning.
• Writers argue, defend, support, or champion positions based on knowledge gained from source reading.

Identify your next steps

This guide has unpacked the science of writing—from the theories that explain how writing develops to the five instructional writing essentials that drive student success.

Now the focus turns to implementation. Research becomes real only when teachers translate it into daily routines, explicit instruction, and systematic support.

To continue learning how to put the writing essentials into practice, consider these next steps:

View our on-demand workshop: Kick-Start Writing Instruction

Register for our Kick-Start Writing Instruction on-demand workshop. This 5-hour workshop equips teachers with research-based strategies to develop confident, resilient writers while providing a step-by-step plan for launching writing instruction that fosters engagement and stamina.

Access free resources on the Learning Center

For a vast collection of free, innovative resources, the best place to start is the Smekens Education Learning Center. Here you’ll find best-practice strategies for writing instruction in videos, whiteboard downloads, graphic organizers, and more.

Invite a Smekens conultant to guide and support your efforts

In-person or live virtual teacher training can take an abstract hope for improving student success in writing and turn it into actual improved writing results. Training is customized to your school’s unique needs and professional development goals. Find out how Smekens can help you achieve those goals.